Pharmaceutics
2020, 12, 735
23 of 30
A knowledge of organogenesis, together with ability to manipulate the microenvironment to
force cell di
fferentiation and bioprinted tissue production, have allowed the development of cutaneous
tissue through autonomous self-assembly, a technique able to reproduce a biological tissue following
the map of embryonic development. This technique involves the 3D bioprinting of cell spheroids,
which undergo cell fusion and cell reorganization, to mimic the architecture of the developing tissue.
Spheroids can vary in size, depending on the parameters set by the user. Their complete biological
function depends directly on the cells that secrete their ECM component, following the signaling
pathways for histogenesis, and on the localization process.
Mini tissue has been proposed as an alternative self-assembling approach. In this context,
3D bioprinting is exploited to form macro-constructs, assembling mini tissue based on cellular
spheroids [
123
].
In general, tissue engineering shows infinite potentialities, but several constraints still need to be
addressed. The design of a complex hierarchical structure engineered with di
fferent cells is ongoing
and challenging; a few technologies have emerged, such as assisted laser bioprinting (LaBP) and
laser-induced transfer (LIFT), for producing 2D and 3D constructs incorporating di
fferent cell lines.
LIFT technology was used for assembling fibroblasts
/keratinocytes and MSCs in a single 3D construct;
the impact of the production phase was estimated by quantifying the cell survival rate, cell surface
marker changes and DNA damage. The data demonstrated that fibroblasts, keratinocytes and human
mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) were able to survive during the production phase, and they retained
their proliferation ability with no evidence of DNA or surface marker alterations [
86
].
6.4. Bioreactors
Bioreactors are devices where biological and
/or biochemical processes take place under carefully
and strictly controlled operating and environmental conditions (pH, temperature, pressure, feeding,
and removal of waste products).
In these systems, cell-engineered sca
ffolds complete their
cellularization before being implanted. Compared to the progress that has been made in the design of
sca
ffolds, much progress has also been made in bioreactors, especially for creating devices capable
of overcoming limitations to nutrients and oxygen transport that hinder the achievement of in vitro
engineered tissues suitable for clinical applications. Bioreactors are used either in the engineered tissue
maturation phase or during cell seeding, in order to overcome static seeding limits that preclude a
uniform cell distribution along the entire sca
ffold thickness. The bioreactor provides an important step
towards the achievement of functional grafts; it e
fficiently supports cell nourishment and, if combined
with mechanical stimuli application, it directs cell activity, cell functions and di
fferentiation. In addition,
bioreactors o
ffer well-defined culture conditions that are useful for systematic and controlled cell
di
fferentiation and tissue development studies (Figure
4
). Computational modeling and experimental
tests were used to study transport phenomena within the bioreactor [
124
]. In a study conducted
by Navarro and colleagues, the authors developed a dual-chambered membrane bioreactor for the
co-culture of stratified cell populations (DCB) to study 3D-stratified cell populations for skin tissue
engineering. DCB provides adjacent flow lines within the chamber and the included membrane
regulates stratification and flow mixing. This system can be exploited to produce cell population layers
or gradients in sca
ffolds [
125
].
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